SOC 257: New Religious Movements Lectures
University of Virginia
Department of Sociology
Jeffrey K. Hadden

Joining Religious Movements:
The Brainwashing Model

Lecture Outline:

Origins of the Concept

Empirical Research on Chinese Brainwashing

Brainwashing and the Cults

Assessing the Brainwashing Thesis

On Line Resouces

Suggested Readings

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Part I: Origins of the Concept

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Origins of the Concept

• Intelligence and World War II
• Chinese Thought Reform
• Coining the Term "Brainwashing"
• The Alleged Power of Brainwashing

Intelligence and World War II

• [Read Anthony & Robbins for this information]

Chinese Thought Reform

• Avowed Aims
  • Creation of a "new man"
  • Teaching Communist point of view on specific issues
• Implicit Aims
• Creation of obedient citizens
• Transformation of an entrenched bureaucracy
• Creation of ideological unanimity

Coining the Term "Brainwashing"

• During the Korean War a few American soldiers who were prisoners of war defected.
• The defections resulted from the Chinese utilizing the same methods of "thought reform" they had used to coerce conformity among their own citizens.
• Edward Hunter, a British journalist , used the term "brainwashing" to characterize this process in a book entitled Brainwashing in Red China (1951).

The Alleged Power of Brainwashing

• Hunter argued that the Chinese had developed powerful techniques of thought reform that could:
  • Alter beliefs
  • Alter thought processes
  • Alter consciousness
• Hunter alleged, these techniques were so powerful that they were virtually irreversible.

The power of brainwashing is so great that it is:

• Irresistible
• Undetectable
• Irreversible

Brainwashing and popular culture

• Brainwashing seemed to have an intuitively self-evident and self-confirming meaning that quickly caught on and became a part of popular culture.
• While many would assume that strong leaders should be able to resist this pernicious process, the threat of being subjected to brainwashing is ever present in many arenas of culture.
  • Mass media helped to promote this sentiment.

Brainwashing and mass media

• This awesome view of brainwashing gained even greater credibility in a highly acclaimed movie entitled The Manchurian Candidate (1962)

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Part II: Empirical Research on Chinese Brainwashing

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What is the evidence for this theory of brainwashing?

• After the Korean War the U.S. government commissioned four independent studies of brainwashing. One was a secret study conducted by the CIA and a second was never published.. We will examine the two published studies authored by:
• Robert Lifton
• Edgar Schein

Summary of Lifton on "brainwashing:"

"Behind this web of semantic...confusion lies an image of 'brainwashing' as an all-powerful, irresistible, unfathomable, and magical method of achieving total control over the human mind. It is of course none of these things, and this loose usage makes the word a rallying point for fear, resentment, urges toward submission, justification for failure, irresponsible accusations, and for a wide gamut of emotional extremism. One must justly conclude that the term has a far from precise and a questionable usefulness."

• Thought Reform and the Psychology of Totalism (1961)

Lifton believes alteration of beliefs possible through manipulation

• Thought reform is the concept he uses to characterize this process.

Thought reform is effectively achieved only in an environment of totalism

• Thought reform consists to two basic elements:
  • Confession -- the exposure and renunciation of past and present "evil"; and
  • re-education -- the remaking of a man in the "communist" image

Attributes of a totalist environment according to Lifton:

• mileau control
• mystical manipulation
• demand for ideological purity
• cult of confession
• the "sacred science"
• loading the language
• doctrine over person
• dispensing of existence

Edgar Schein's Research

• Schein is a psychologist
• The title of his book is: Coercive Persuasion: A Social-Psychological Analsis of the "Brainwashing" of American Civilian Prisoners of the Chinese Communists (1961)

Summary of Schein's on "brainwashing:"

"The experiences of the prisoners did not fit such a model [the image of brainwashing as an esoteric technique of systematically destroying the mind]...hence we have abandoned the term brainwashing and prefer to use the term coercive persuasion...basically what happened to the prisoners was that they were subjected to unusually intense and prolonged persuasion in a situation from which they could not escape; that is, they were coerced into allowing themselves to be persuaded..."

Coercive Persuasion (1961)

Other Government Research

• There were two additional studies of brainwashing conducted by the government.
• One by L.E. Hinkle, Jr & H.E. Wolff was secretly conducted by the CIA, but a declassified paper was later published.
• The fourth investigation by Albert Bidermann was also never published

Conclusions:

1. The use of hypnosis or altered states of consciousness to induce conformity is not supported.
2. Aggressive propaganda combined with isolation, manipulated peer pressure, torture or the threat of torture, and total uncertainty concerning the future produced limited, but temporary, behavioral conformity.
3. Behavior compliance occurs in an environment of coercion or "totalism".
4. People are most likely to alter their views when presented information consistent with their own value predispositions.
5. While employed by the Chinese, these techniques were not found to be inherently objectionable.
6. There is no evidence to support the horrific model of brainwashing suggested by Hunter.
7. Nor is there any evidence to support the conclusion that any government [U.S., Germany, Soviet Union or China] achieved their research goals of inducing belief or behavioral modification.

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Part III: Brainwashing and the Cults

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Three Versions of Brainwashing

• The Vulgar Version
• The Neo-Vulgar Verson
• The Laundered Version

The Vulgar Version: Deprogramming

• Ted Partick is the father of deprogramming
  • Deprogramming is a process of confrontation that aims to break the faith of a person who has joined a group that is disapproved of by the person(s) who pay the deprogrammer.

The Neo-Vulgar Version

• Flo Conway and Jim Siegelman are journalists whose investigation of the youth involvement led to this book
• They claim to go beyond brainwashing, but their central thesis closely parallels that of the proponents of brainwashing.
  • There are people out there messing with minds in ways we can scarcely understand...and something must be done.

The Laundered Version

• Margaret Thaler Singer
• Research Areas:
  • Schizophrenia
  • Psychosomatic medicine
  • Family disorganization
• Occupation:
• Professional expert witness

Theory of Systematic Manipulation of Social and Psychological Influence (SMSPI)

• Margaret Singer is the leading proponent of a seemingly more sophisticated theory of brainwashing/mind control.
  • Her most coherent theoretical statement is located in a brief article on "Group Psychodynamics" which appears in The Merck Manual.
• Singer locates her perspective in learning theory and behavior modification theory

Four Models of Learning Behavior

• Observational Learning: modeling
• Classic Conditioning: Pavlovian stimulus-response
• Operant Conditioning: Skinnerian reinforcement
• Cognitive Social Learning: Inner experience of thoughts, feelings, images

Methods of Persuasion or Techniques for Modifying Behavior and Gaining Compliance

• Reason
• Coercion
• Subterfuge

Hierarchy of Socially Desirable Modification Techniques

• Singer views reason as the only desirable way to gain compliance to change behavior.
• She postulates a heirarchy or continumn ranging from reason to subterfuge.
• The modern cult, from her perspective, has developed much more sophisticated and socially undesirable ways of modifying behavior, namely subterfuge.
• Subterfuge, in this context, means using secret or deceptive techniques of influence.
• To return to the name she gave her theory, those who use subterfuge systematically manipulate the social and psychological environment to acheive their objective of influence.

Types of Behavior Modification

Reason ---------> Coercion ---------> Subterfuge

 

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Part IV: Assessing the Brainwashing Thesis

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Assessing the Brainwashing Thesis

• The Singer Thesis Examined
• Empirical Evidence
• Peer Assessment: The Scientific Community
• Legal Status

A. The Singer Thesis Examined

How is SMSPI Different from Old-Fashioned Brainwashing?

• Here is Singer's definition of cults that appears in The Merck Manual:

  "....groups with religious, political, psychologic, and other ideologies at their core...that use the techniques of thought reform (intense indoctrination or resocialization, coercive persuasion, brainwashing....i.e., the systematic manipulation of social and psychological and psychological influence, distinguished from other forms of social learning...."

There is a fundamental lack of correspondence between the learning theory conceptualization and the definition.

• the definition asserts that a wide array of groups engage in...
• this activity is variously identified as "thought reform," "coercive persuasion," "brainwashing," and SMSPI
• the nature of the activity is characterized as intense indoctrination or resocialization
• indoctrination and resocialization are processes that occur in many arenas of life
• the meaning of intense is unclear
• therefore, a cult is a group that is so labeled by those who have the social power to apply the label

B. Empirical Evidence

• While claiming to have conducted hundreds of clinical interviews, Singer has not published a single scientific paper with empirical data.
• Nor have any other scholars produced empirical evidence to support Singer's thesis.
• The absence of evidence notwithstanding, Singer spent many years an an expert witness on behalf of the brainwashing thesis.

  Psych Lit Survey Challenges Singer Claims

  • Psychologist Perry London conducted a comprehensive data base search of "Psych Lit" for the years (1974-89)
  • The data base consisted of 1400 journals from 54 countries in 29 languages
  • London searched for citations using the concepts "brainwashing," "coercive persuasion," "thought reform," "mind control, " and "destructive cults."
  • 50 references were located
  • Only two [2] presented empirical data:
    • one study refuted the "brainwashing" concept
    • one supported, but did not contain a control group

  London's Conclusions:

  • There is no research base to support the "robot" theory of influence.
  • There is a significant literature to support a theory of "social influence."
  • Social influence is a normal process of everyday life. It occurs in every walk of life on a more or less ongoing basis.
  • Social influence is not to be equated with "brainwashing" or any of the other concepts that Singer and her confederates use to describe influence.

C. Peer Assessment

• Science advances by two critical steps:
  • Independent replication of research findings
  • Peer assessment
• How do peers assess Singer's ideas?
  • At least four professional associations have reviewed and found the brainwashing or thought reform thesis lacking in scientific merit.

  Board of Social and Ethical Responsibility for Psychology (BSERP)

  • BSERP is the duly responsible board of the American Psychological Association charged with responsibility for oversight of ethical concerns and responsibility of its members.
  • At the encouragement of Singer and a few others, BSERP appointed a Task Force on Deceptive and Indirect Methods of Persuasion and Conrol. Singer was appointed to chair the Task Force.
  • BSERP not only found the report unacceptable, it cautioned Task Force members not to distribute the report without indicating that the report was unacceptable to the Board.

D. Legal Status

• In spite of the fact that peers have repeatedly rejected the viability of the brainwashing thesis, Singer and her colleagues continued to successfully present their views in courts.
• Up through 1988, Singer appeared as an expert witness in at least 37 cases
• Her testimony was not always decisive, but she was always on the winning side.
• Efforts to challenge the intellectual integrity of her theory were not successful

  The turning point came in a case in 1990 involving a person on trial for grand larceny who attempted to blame Scientology (USA v Fishman)

  • Key expert witnesses for his defense were Margaret Singer and Richard Ofshe
  • Steven Fishman's defense to embezzlement charges was that he has been brainwashed while affiliated with Scientology and could not control his behavior.
  • The government moved to exclude the testimony of Singer and Ofshe on the grounds that their views did not represent the consensual view of the scientific community.
  • In a land mark ruling, the presiding judge substantially agreed

  Significance of Fishman Ruling

  • A key strategy of the anti-cultists has been to persuade ex-members to sue the group they left.
  • The "brainwashing" suits were a deliberate strategy aimed at destroying NRMs by keeping them tied up in legal battles.
  • NRMs were forced to spend very significant sums of time and money to defend themselves.
  • In rejecting the "brainwashing" argument, the courts effectively took away this effective attack strategy of the anti-cultists.

  Singer & Ofshe sue professional colleagues

  • Singer and Ofshe have twice sued social scientists and their professional organizations, claiming that they have been wrongfully denied their right to make a gainful living.
  • Both cases were thrown out of court.
  • In the mean time, the Supreme Court has overturned the "Fry principle" which has governed the admissability of expert witness testimony in courts.

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Part V: On Line Resources

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American Psychological Association

Documents on Brainwashing Controversies On CESNUR site.

Introvigne, Massimo

"Brainwashing": Career of a Myth in the United States and Europe. CESNUR

Introvigne, Massimo

"Liar, Liar": Brainwashing, CESNUR and APA CESNUR

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Part V: Suggested Readings

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Anthony, Dick. 1990.

"Religious Movements and Brainwashing Litigation: Evaluating Key Testimony," in Thomas Robbins and Dick Anthony, eds., In Gods We Trust, 2nd ed. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books, 1990.pp 295-344.

Ginsburg, Gerald and James Richardson. 1998.

"'Brainwashing' Evidence in Light of Daubert: Science and Unpopular Religions" in Law and Science1:265-288.

Last modified: 02/13/01

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